Ecology

=**//Ecology//**=

//Topics://

//Ecology (10%)//

 * 1) //Population dynamics//
 * 2) //Communities and ecosystems//
 * 3) //Global issues//

JFMcL. The most difficult cycle to remember is the nitrogen cycle. The most important point is that bacteria are essential to the functioning of this cycle. //Nitrogen fixing bacteria// in the root nodules of legumes or in the soil take the nitrogen out of the air (abiotic reservoir), and convert it into nitrates which can then be used by the plants. Animals __eat__ the plants and get their nitrogen grom the plants or other animals. The nitrogeneous waste products are broken down by //ammonifying bacteria// and //nitrifying bacteria// and the dead animals are also decomposed by //bacteria of decay.// Finally nitrogen is returned to the air by //denitrifying bacteria//. Below is a diagram of the process: []

RMG Demography is the study of vital statistics of a population (especially __birth__ and death rates). Survivorship curve type one shows low death rates during early and midlife with a sharp increase in death rate in older age groups. Survivorship curve type two shows a constant death rate over the organism's life span. Survivorship curve type three shows high early death rates then a flat rate for the few surviving older age groups.

I had trouble keeping r-selection and K-selection straight. K-selection __deals__ with factors that are sensitive to population density and carrying capacity. Logistic growth is associated with K-selection. r-selection __deals__ with factors that maximize reproductive success, so exponential growth is associated with r-selection.
 * KGT **

Unstable environment, density independent || **K-selection** Stable environment, density dependent interactions || in which most of the individuals die within a short time but a few live much longer || type I or II survivorship pattern in which most individuals live to near the maximum life span || JFM. Great choice of __topic__! This is one that is frequently confused!
 * **r-selection**
 * small size of organism || large size of organism ||
 * energy used to make each individual is low || energy used to make each individual is high ||
 * many offspring are produced || few offspring are produced ||
 * early maturity || late maturity, often after a prolonged period of parental care ||
 * short life expectancy || long life expectancy ||
 * each individual reproduces only once || individuals can reproduce more than once in their lifetime ||
 * type III survivorship pattern

SRF I struggled with biomes on the test, and this chart helped me organize my __thoughts__.

**SMM** I find it easier to remember the differences between primary and secondary succession if I can visualize them.

**EGR ** Continuing studying ecology, I have found that I still become slightly confused in the differences between density-dependent and density-independent factors.
 * __Density- ____dependent__ - occurs when population growth is affected by the number of individuals living in an area, such as predators or organisms from the same species
 * __Density- ____independent__ - a factor affecting population sizes that is not correlated to population sizes or number of organisms, such as natural disasters or seasonal temperature changes (__earthquake__, monsoon, tornado, forest fire)



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VBG I couldn't wrap my mind around primary productivity. I found a good explanation, and a good example to help. **Primary Productivity** The flow of energy through any ecosystem starts with the fixation of sunlight by plants and other **autotrophic** organisms. In this way the plant accumulates energy and this energy is called **primary production**. The rate at which this energy accumulates is called **primary productivity**. The total energy accumulated is **gross primary production**, however, since plants use some of this energy themselves, it is not all available for the food web. The difference between what is accumulated and what is available for the food web is called **net primary production** expressed in kilocalories or grams m-2 y-1 or kcal or g/m2/y. This is measured by sequentially measuring growth of the biomass over time by marking the plants somehow, or measuring a total at the end of the growing season. Alternatively you can measure oxygen production or CO2 consumption both of which equal grams C produced. (experiment possiblities!) In general, swamps and marshes have the highest primary production of all the world's ecosystems. Primary production of all wetland types varies from 600-2000 gC/m2/y. To review a little: In general, the "openness" of a wetland to hydrological fluxes is probably one of the most important determinants of primary productivity. So wetlands that are stagnant are less productive than those that flow or are open to flooding rivers. This makes sense because a flow-through system constantly gets more nutrients. This isn't 100% though because wetlands get most of their nutrients from recycling rather than from the outside. This is what allows them all to be fairly productive. **Salt Marshes:** These tend to be the most productive ecosystems in the world. Estimates of the southern coastal plain of the U.S. have topped 8000 gC/m2/y through the combined efforts of marsh grass, mud algae, and phytoplankton in the tidal creeks. The southern marshes do better than the northern ones partly because of the greater influx of solar energy and longer growing season, and partly because of the nutrient rich sediments carried by rivers in that region. Low or intertidal marshes are more productive than high marshes because of the increased exposure to tidal flow. Belowground production is high. Under unfavorable soil conditions, plants seem to put more energy into root production. (experiment possibility!) Generally, plant production depends on light, water, nutrients, and toxins. If you look at a salt marsh it has full sun, limitless water, and the sedimentary soil is generally rich in nutrients so you'd expect uniformly high production. That doesn't happen: 1. Productivity declines northward as the growing season shortens. 2. Water looks plentiful but because it's salty the plants tend to lose water and so must expend energy in order to take it up. It's been shown that plant growth is progressively inhibited by salt (experiment possibility!) 3. The less oxygen the soil contains, the worse the plants do even if they're adapted to survive

JM: Gross primary production (GPP) is the total energy (or nutrients) assimilated by an ecological unit (such as an organism, a population, or an entire community).

Net primary production: is the production of organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide, principally through the process of photosynthesis, with chemosynthesis being much less important. All life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as //primary producers// or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae are primarily responsible. Primary production is distinguished as either //net// or //gross//, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.

As I have been reviewing the review book more, I noticed there is quite a bit of information about aquatic biomes.
 * EGR**

Important facts to note from our book/review book: 1. Aquatic biomes make up over 75% of Earth's surface 2. The biomes are either freshwater, or marine biomes (meaning the ocean, water with a high salinity)

Here is an image of the general freshwater biome:



The important parts of this biome are the littoral and limnetic zones. The littoral zone has decent lighting from the sun, and can provide space for plants to grow and thrive. The limnetic zone is not very well-lit, so does not provide a home to much plant life. The limnetic zone can provide home to phytoplankton, though, as the surface of the limnetic zone is well-lit. Freshwater lakes can be either oligotrophic or eutrophic. Oligotrophic lakes are very deep, with a lot of oxygen, but little nutrients, so therefore few phytoplankton. Eutrophic lakes on the other hand are fairly shallow, have a lot of nutrients, and fewer oxygen, but can support high concentrations of phytoplankton.

Here is an image of a general marine biome: The key parts of this diagram for the marine biome are the intertidal zone, the neritic zone, and the oceanic zone. The intertidal zone is where the land meets water, and undergoes submersion twice daily. The neritic zone is the shallow water over the continental shelves. The pelagic zone depicted in the image in the zone of vast blue ocean, past the continental shelves. The benthic zone is the layer containing sand and other sediments, at the bottom of the biome. The photic zone is the region where plants and other autotrophs can thrive, but the aphotic zone does Websites: [] [] CCAI know that the relationships between organisms is one of the most important concepts in ecology so this is a summary of the roles of competitive exclusion and interspecific competition in an ecosystem.A **community** is a group of populations of different species living close enough to interact.**Interspecific competitions** for resources occur when resources are in short supply. Competition is a -/- interaction.

Predation is a +/- interaction between two species in which one species ( the predator) eats the other species ( the prey). Defenses include:
 * 1) the **competitive exclusion principal** states that when two species are vying for a resource, eventually the one with the slight reproductive advantage will eliminate the other.
 * 2) An organism's **ecological niche** is all the biotic and abiotic resources that a species uses in it environment. A species **fundamental niche**, the niche potentially occupied by the species, if often different from the **realized niche**, the portion of the fundamental niche the species actually occupies.

* A plant's main protective devices are chemical toxins, spines, and thorns. Taken from the review book, chapter 54!
 * **Cryptic coloration**- animal is camouflaged by its coloring
 * **aposemantic** or **warning coloration** is when a poisonous animal is brightly colored as warning to other animals.
 * **Batesian mimicry**- harmless species has evolved to mimic the coloration of an unpalatable or harmful species. In **Mullerian mimicry**, two bad tasting species resemble each other, so predators will learn to avoid them equally.
 * Herbivory- +/- interaction in which an herbivore eats part of a plant or alga. It is advantageous for the animal to be able to distinguish toxic from nontoxic plants.

ABMJust a general review taken from the review book ch. 51Learning- The modifcation of behavior based on specific experiencesImprinting- Combination of learned and innate components that are all limited to a sensitive period in an organism's life and is generally irreversible. Something that should come to mind is Konrad Lorenz's demonstration with newborn greylag geeseHabituation- A loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no informationCognitive Map- An internal representation of spatial relationships among objects in an animal's surroundingsAssociative Learning- The ability of many animals to associate one feature of their environment with another featureClassical Conditioning- Learning to associate certain stimuli with reward or punishmentOperant Conditioning- An animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishmentCognition- The ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information from sensory receptors ** KGT **Aquatic biomes make up the largest part of the biosphere. The different zones are important to remember. This is taken from the review book.1. All aquatic biomes display vertical stratification: 2. The two types of freshwater biomes are standing bodies of water like lakes and moving bodies of waters like rivers. 3. Marine biomes include:
 * The **photic zone**, in which there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur, and an aphotic zone, where very little light penetrates.
 * The **benthic zone** is located at the bottom of the biome, where it is made up of sand, inorganic matter, and organic sediments.
 * **Thermoclines** are narrow layers of fast temperature change that separate a warm upper layer of water and cold deeper waters.
 * In lakes, communities are distributed according to the water's depth. The **littoral zone** (well-lit shallow waters near the shore) contains rooted and floating aquatic plants, whereas the **limnetic zone** (well-lit open surface waters farther from the shore) is occupied by phytoplankton.
 * The **intertidal zone**, where land meets water, is periodically submerged and exposed to twice-daily tides.
 * The **neritic zone**, beyond the intertidal zone, is the shallow water over the continental shelves.
 * The **pelagic biome** s a vast realm of open blue water found past the continental shelves.

** KGT **Although it isn't that complicated, it is important to remember the different patterns of dispersion. Here's a helpful image to refresh your memory.

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ABMSomething that confused me was what exactly a keystone species is. This definition really didn't help me so I was able to find an example of a keystone species
 * The definition states that they exert control on community structure by their important ecological niches.
 * The sea otter is a very good example of a keystone species because it is one of a small group of animals that eats sea anemones. Sea anemones eat the kelp which provide many organisms with a habitat. When sea otter populations decrease, anenome populations increase which destroys the kelp forests, and leads to the decline of species whose habitat is the kelp forest. When sea otter populations are strong, every other species should be doing well.

RP. One topic we talked about briefly when reviewing organism niches is **biological amplification**. The idea is that as you go higher up in trophic levels, the concentration of toxins such as DDT and PCB increases. This is because organisms higher up in the food chain are consuming greater amounts of these toxins, because it passes through the levels. To put it into perspective, here's a picture of what I'm talking about. http://sparkleberrysprings.com/v-web/b2/images/t/trophic3b.png It's dangerous in general to have these substances in the environment, but it can be especially bad for these organisms.

VBGIt is important to understand Community Ecology. I personally had a hard time with interspecific competitions.Taken from review book.**Interspecific competitions** for resources occur when resources are in short supply. Competition is a -/- interaction between the species involved. Central to the idea of competition and community structure are these two concepts:1. The **competitive exclusion principle** states that when two species are vying for a resource, eventually one with the slight reproductive advantage will eliminate the other.2. An organism's **ecological niche** is the sum total of biotic and abiotic resources that the species uses in its environment. a species' **fundamental niche,** the niche potentially occupied by the species, is often different from the **realized niche,** the portion of the fundamental niche the species usually occupies. TWKI was looking over the Ecology test, and I did not understand what the capture-recapture method was.This website has a lab that shows how the process works, however the description below helped me to understand what the process was and what assumptions must be made about the process. [|http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol380/Labs/mark&.htm]

**The Mark and Recapture Technique**

The mark and recapture method involves marking a number of individuals in a natural population, returning them to that population, and subsequently recapturing some of them as a basis for estimating the size of the population at the time of marking and release. This procedure was first used by C.J.G. Petersen in studies of marine fishes and F.C. Lincoln in studies of waterfowl populations, and is often referred to as the Lincoln Index or the Petersen Index. It is based on the principle that if a proportion of the population was marked in some way, returned to the original population and then, after complete mixing, a second sample was taken, the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample would be the same as was marked initially in the total population. That is, R (marked recaptures) / C (total in second sample) = M (marked initially) / N (total pop. size) The accuracy of this method rests on a number of assumptions, including the following: > 1). During the interval between the preliminary marking period and the subsequent recapture period, nothing has happened to upset the proportions of marked to unmarked animals (that is, no new individuals were born or immigrated into the population, and none died or emigrated). > 2). The chances for each individual in the population to be caught are equal and constant for both the initial marking period and the recapture period. That is, marked individuals must not become either easier or more difficult to catch. > 3). Sufficient time must be allowed between the initial marking period and the recapture period for all marked individuals to be randomly dispersed throughout the population (so that assumption 2 above holds). However, the time period must not be so long that assumption 1 breaks down. > 4). Animals are not affected by their marks (i.e., their survival, catchability, ability to migrate, reproductive ability in the time interval are all unaffected by the marks). > 5). Animals do not lose their marks. ELB I found this study guide that does a nice job of explaining trophic levels and changes in biomass. There are a few images that provide a good view of how the energy flows in an ecosystem.

http://www.marietta.edu/~mcshaffd/lead/trophic.pdf

SALEven though it's not difficult to memorize, it is important to remember the different types of symbiosis. Heres a visual to help you remember.


 * JJS ** Here are some examples of symbiotic relationships. Applying terms to real life examples is a great way of remembering and understanding their definitions.

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SALMany people confuse the difference between a food chain and a food web. A food chain consists of one organism from each trophic level. A food web consists of multiple good chains. Here are diagrams of each [] []

**SAL**I never really understood the carbon cycle. This website had a simple good summary and diagram @http://eo.ucar.edu/kids/green/cycles6.htm

The Carbon Cycle
====All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks. Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not stay still. It is on the move! ====

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to some oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide.
====<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow. The carbon becomes part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into fossil fuels made of carbon like coal and oil over millions of years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. ==== ====<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a frozen world. But humans have burned so much fuel that there is about 30% more carbon dioxide in the air today than there was about 150 years ago, and Earth is becoming a warmer place. In fact, ice cores show us that there is now more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than there has been in the last 420,000 years. ====

One topic I felt like I needed to review was succession. Ecological succession refers to the **transition of species** in a certain area over ecological time, or **sequence of community changes after a disturbance.** There are two types: 1. //Primary-// plants & animals **gradually** invade a region that **was virtually lifeless** where **soil has not yet formed** Example- newly formed volcanic island Extreme natural disasters can cause an area to become available for primary succession such as intense wildfires, lava flow, or glaciation 2. //Secondary-// existing community has been cleared by a disturbance that leaves the **soil intact** Example- abondoned farms The relative endpoint for succession is when a community becomes a **climax community**- very little of extraordinary slow change Information from the review book & http://www.ehow.com/about_5118584_ecological-succession.html & http://www.course-notes.org/Biology/Outlines/Chapter_53_Community_Ecology http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/images/succession.gif
 * WJH **
 * Initially, only autotrophic prokaryotes may be present.
 * Next, mosses and lichens colonize and cause the development of soil.
 * Once soil is present, grasses, shrubs, and trees sprout from seeds blown or carried in from nearby areas.
 * Herbaceous species grow first, from wind-blown or animal-borne seeds.
 * Woody shrubs replace the herbaceous species, and they in turn are replaced by forest trees.


 * Energy Flow Through An Ecosystem**

-Every energy transfer or transformation increased entropy (disorder) of the universe
 * Thermodynamics-**Energy can not be either created or destroyed (Law of Conservation of Energy)

When Drawing a food web or food chain, the arrows **POINT IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF ENERGY**.

Plants are exposed t the greatest amount of energy input. This is because after each trophic level, the level before only gives off 10% of the energy that they absorbed. The other 90% that they absorbed was used for their own expenses. Therefore, organisms at the top of the food chain are more exposed to disease and must eat more food in order to acquire a sufficient amount of energy to support them. This is shown in the pyramid below.

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-**MSL** YC Here is the water cycle. We never went through it thoroughly,but it is a good review. http://wacmos.itc.nl/

http://bioh.wikispaces.com/More+Elemental+Cycles
 * Phosphorus Cycle:**


 * -MSL**

I found this website really helpful in explaining the difference between primary, gross, and net production, and just energy flow in general. It is a bit lengthy, but I found it helpful. http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/energyflow/energyflow.html
 * LH:**

KEY TERMS OF ECOLOGY I believe that these terms are extremely important to know, as they are mainframe vocabulary for the section. Here are the key terms of ecology in summary. You can quiz yourself on the below listed terms and play games with the terms at: Quizlet Ecology Review

Happy Studying! media type="custom" key="17526080"


 * ~ ====<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'century gothic',tahoma,arial,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Terms ==== ||~ ====<span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'century gothic',tahoma,arial,sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">Definitions ==== ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] abiotic ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] NONLIVING CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS (IE. AIR, WATER) ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ecosystem ecology ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] EMPHASIS IS ON ENERGY FLOW AND THE CYCLING OF CHEMICALS AMONG THE VARIOUS BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] cautionary principle ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ECOLOGICAL INFO IS ALWAYS INCOMPLETE SO "LOOK BEFORE YOU LEAP"AND REMEMBER "AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION IS WORTH A POUND OF CURE" ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] population ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SPECIES LIVING IN A PARTICULAR GEOGRAPHIC AREA ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] population ecology ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] STUDY CONCENTRATING ON FACTORS THAT AFFECT HOW MANY INDIVIDUALS OF A PARTICULAR SPECIES LIVE IN AN AREA ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] community ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ALL THE ORGANISMS OF ALL THE SPECIES THAT INHABIT A PARTICULAR AREA ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biosphere ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE SUM OF ALL THE PLANETS ECOSYSTEMS - MOST EXTENSIVE LEVEL IN ECOLOGY - THE PLANET AS A WHOLE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biogeography ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE STUDY OF PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL SPECIES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] thermocline ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A NARROW STRATUM OF RAPID TEMPERATURE CHANGE IN WATER ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] benthic zone ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE SUBSTRATE AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL AQUATIC BIOMES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] detritus ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] DEAD ORGANIC MATTER, MAJOR FOOD SOURCE FOR THE BENTHOS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] littoral zone ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ROOTED AND FLOATING AQUATIC PLANTS FLOURISH IN THIS SHALLOW WELL-LIT WATER CLOSE TO SHORE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] estuary ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] BOARDERED BY WETLANDS WHERE SALINITY RANGES FROM 1-3% ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] pelagic ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] OPEN WATER OF ANY DEPTH IS THIS ZONE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] coral reef ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] FOUND IN WARM TROPICAL WATERS IN THE NERITIC ZONE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] clumped ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] in groups, clumps ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] uniform ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] evenly spaced ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] random ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] varied not in a certain pattern ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] eutrophic ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] SHALLOW LAKES WITH HIGH NUTRIENT CONTENT, LARGE SURFACE AREA, MURKIER WATERS, HIGH RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] mark-recapture ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USED TO ESTIMATE FISH AND WILDLIFE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] survivorship curve ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A PLOT OF THE PROPORTION OR NUMBERS IN A COHORT STILL ALIVE AT EACH AGE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] life table ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AGE SPECIFIC SUMMARY OF THE SURVIVAL PATTERN OF A POPULATION ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] oligotrophic ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] LAKES WITH MODERATE AMOUNT OF NUTRIENTS AND PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTIVITY ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] abyssal ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ~3 DEGREES WATER, DARK, EXTREMELY HIGH WATER PRESSURE, LOW NUTRIENT CEONCENTRATION, SOME OXYGEN, DIVERSE POPUL. ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] carrying capacity ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] MAXIMUM POPULATION SIZE THAT A PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT CAN SUPPORT AT A PARTICULAR TIME WITH NO DEGRADATION OF THE HABITAT ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] K-selection (equilibrium) ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] SELECTION FOR LIFE HISTROY TRAITS THAT ARE SENSITIVE TO POPULATION DENSITY - USUALLY MAXIMIZES POPULATION SIZE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ecological footprint approach ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] PROMISING APPROACH TO ESTIMATING THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF EARTH USING SIX TYPES OF ECOLOGICALLY PRODUCTIVE AREAS - ARABLE LAND, PASTURE, FOREST, OCEAN, BUILT-UP LAND, AND FOSSIL ENERGY LAND ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] interactive hypothesis ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ADVOCATED BY F.E. CLEMENTS IN EARLY 1900'S, SAW COMMUNITY AS AN ASSEMBLAGE OF CLOSELY LINKED SPECIES ACTING AS SUPERORGANISM ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ecosystem ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE SUM TOTAL OF ALL SPECIES USE OF THE BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC RESOURCES IN ITS ENVIRONMENT ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] niche differentiation ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE DIFFERENTIATION OF NICHES THAT ENABLE SIMILAR SPECIES TO COEXIST IN A COMMUNITY ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] character displacement ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE TENDENCY FOR CHARACTERISTICS TO BE MORE DIVERGENT IN SYMPARTIC PAPULATIONS OF 2 SPECIES THAN IN ALLOPATRIC POPULATIONS OF THE SAME 2 SPECIES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] r-selection (opportunistic) ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] DENSITY-INDEPENDENT SELECTION THAT MAXIMIZE REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN UNCROWDED ENVIROMENTS - USUALLY LOGISTICAL CURVE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] semelparous ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ADULTS HAVE A SINGLE OPPOROTUNITY TO PRODUCE LARGE AMOUNT OF OFFSPRING - IE. SALMON ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] inclusive model ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] SUGGESTION THAT MOST OF THE SPECIES IN A COMMUNITY ARE ASSOCIATED TIGHTLY WITH OTHER SPECIES IN A WEB OF LIFE - COULD BE CALLED INCARNATION OF THE INTERACTIVE MODEL ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] interference competition ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] TYPE OF COMPETITIION FOR RESOURCES THAT CAN OCCUR WHEN RESOURCES ARE IN SHORT SUPPLY ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] mutualism ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AN INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTION THAT BENEFITS BOTH SPECIES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] top down model ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] POSTULATES THAT IT IS THE PREDATOR THAT CONTROLS COMMUNITY ORGANIZATOIN BECAUSE PREDATORS CONTROL HERBIVORE WHICH IN TURN CONTROL PLANTS WHICH IN TRUN CONTROLS NUTRIENT LEVELS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biomass ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE SUM WEIGHT OF ALL THE ORGANISMS IN A POPULATION ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] parasite ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AN ORGANISM THAT LIVES IN OR ON ANOTHER ORGANISM CAUSING IT HARM ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] energetic hypothesis ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] POPULAR SUGGESTION THAT THE LENGTH OF A FOOD CHAIN IS LIMITED BY THE INEFFICIENCY OF ENERGY TRANSFER ALONG THE CHAIN ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] keystone species ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS FEWER IN # BUT HAVE STRONG CONTROL ON COMMUNITY STRUCTURE BY THEIR ECOLOGICAL ROLES/NICHES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] herbivore ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] EXTENTION OF PARASITE DEFINITION BY INCLUDING HERBIVORES THAT EAT PLANTS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] camouflage/cryptic coloration ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A PASSIVE DEFENSE THAT MAKES POTENTIAL PREY DIFFICULT TO SPOT AGAINST ITS BACKGROUND, AKA CAMOUFLAGE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] batesian mimicry ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A PALATABLE OR HARMLESS SPECIES MIMICS AN UNPALATABLE OR HARMFUL MODEL ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] aposematic coloring ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ANIMALS WITH CHEMICAL DEFENSES ARE OFTEN BRIGHTLY COLORED ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] mullerian mimicry ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] TWO OR MORE UNPALATABLE SPECIES RESEMBLE EACH OTHER ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] coevolution ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] RECIPROCAL EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS OF 2 INTERACTING SPECIES ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] endoparasite ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A PARASITE THAT LIVES WITHIN THEIR HOST, IE. TAPEWORM ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] primary succession ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AREA WHERE SOIL HAS NOT YET FORMED AND ORGANISMS DID NOT PREVIOUSELY EXIST, IE. VOLCANIC AREA ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] consumer ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS THAT CONSUME PRODUCERS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biodiversity ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE MEASURE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY CONSIUDERING RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] detrivore ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS THAT CONSUME DEAD ORGANIC MATERIAL AS THEIR PRIMARY SOURCE OF NUTRITION, IE. CATFISH ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] gross primary production (GPP) ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] TOTAL PRIMARY PRODUCTION OR THE AMOUNT OF LIGHT ENERGY THAT IS CONVERTED TO CHEMICAL ENERGY BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS PER UNIT TIME ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] standing crop ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] TOTAL BIOMASS OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS PRESENT AT A GIVEN TIME ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] secondary production ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AMOUNT OF CHEMICAL ENERGY IN CONSUMERS FOOD THAT IS CONVERTED TO THEIR OWN NEW BIOMASS DRUING A GIVEN TIME PEROID ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biomass pyramid ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] EACH TIER REPRESENTS THE STANDING CROP IN A TROPHIC LEVEL, SHAPED LIKE AN UPSIDE DOWN V ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] eutrophication ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] PROCESS THAT CHANGES POPULATION TYPES IN BODIES OF WATER BY DUMPING NUTRIENT RICH SEWAGE AND FERTILIZER RUNOFF IN TO THE LAKE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] producers ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS AT THE BOTTOM OF THE TROPHIC PYRAMID, AUTOTROPHIC PHOTOSYNTHESIZERS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] tropic efficiency ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE % OF ENERGY/PRODUCTION TRANSFERRED FROM ONE TROPIC LEVEL TO THE NEXT - USUALLY A FRACTION OF ~10% ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] tertiary consumer ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS USUALLY AT THE TOP OF THE FOOD CHAIN OR PYRAMID, IE. YOU OR A ORCA THAT ATE THE DOLPHIN THAT ATE THE FISH THAT ATE THE SEAWEED ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] green world hypothesis ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] SUGGESTS THAT HERBIVORS CONSUME VERY LITTLE PLANT BIOMASS BECAUSE THEY ARE HELD IN CHECK BY MANY FACTORS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] critical load ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE AMOUNT OF ADDED NUTRIENTS (SUCH AS NITROGEN)THAT CAN BE ABSORBED BY PLANTS WITH OUT DAMAGING ECOSYSTEM INTEGRITY ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ammonification ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC NITROGEN BACK TO AMMONIUM BY BACTERIA AND FUNGI ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] biomagnification ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] THE CONCENTRATION OF HARMFUL TOXINS IN SUCCESSIVE TROPHIC LEVELS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] endangered species ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS THAT ARE LIKELY TO BECOME EXTINCT IN THE FORSEEABLE FUTURE THROUGHOUT ALL OR A SIGNIFICANT PORTION OF THEIR RANGE ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ecosystem services ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ALL THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS AND THE SPECIES THEY CONTAIN HELP SUSTAIN HUMAN LIFE ON EARTH, IE. NUTRIENT CYCLING, SEED DISPERSAL, PURIFICAITON OF AIR & WATER ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] introduced species ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] ORGANISMS THAT HUMANS MOVE TO A REGION WHERE THEY WERE NOT PREVIOUSELY FOUND. ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] extinction vortex ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] DOWNWARD SPIRAL UNIQUE TO SMALL POPULATIONS ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] zoned reserve ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] AN EXTENSIVE AREA OF LAND THAT INCLUDES ONE OR MORE AREAS UNDISTURBED BY HUMANS SURROUNDED BY LANDS THAT HAVE BEEN CHANGED BY HUMAN ACTIVITY AND ARE USED FOR ECONOMIC GAIN ||
 * < [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] movement corridor ||< [[image:http://b.quizlet.com/a/i/spacer.MzUH.gif]] A SERIES OF SMALL CLUMPS OR A NARROW STRIP OF QUALITY HABITAT THAT CONNECTS OTHERWISE ISOLATED PATCHES OF QUALITY HABITAT ||

**SRF** - This walks through how to solve a hardy-weinberg equation

Albinism is only expressed in the phenotype of homozygous recessive individuals ( aa ). . The average human frequency of albinism in North America is only about 1 in 20,000. Referring back to the Hardy-Weinberg equation ( p² + 2pq + q² = 1 ), the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals (aa) in a population is q². Therefore, in North America the following must be true for albinism: q² = 1/20,000 = .00005 By taking the square root of both sides of this equation, we get: (Note: the numbers in this example are rounded off for simplification.) q = .007 In other words, the frequency of the recessive albinism allele (a) is .00707 or about 1 in 140. Knowing one of the two variables ( q ) in the Hardy-Weinberg equation, it is easy to solve for the other ( p ). || p = 1 - q The frequency of the dominant, normal allele (A) is, therefore, .99293 or about 99 in 100. The next step is to plug the frequencies of p and q into the Hardy-Weinberg equation: || p² + 2pq + q² = 1 This gives us the frequencies for each of the three genotypes for this trait in the population: || p² =
 * p = 1 - .007 ||
 * p = .993 ||
 * p = .993 ||
 * (.993)² + 2 (.993)(.007) + (.007)² = 1 ||
 * .986 + .014 + .00005 = 1 ||
 * .986 + .014 + .00005 = 1 ||
 * predicted frequency

of homozygous

dominant individuals || =.986= 98.6% ||
 * 2pq = || predicted frequency

of heterozygous

individuals || =.014= 1.4% ||
 * q² = || predicted frequency

of homozygous

recessive individuals

(the albinos) || =.00005= .005% || With a frequency of .005% (about 1 in 20,000), albinos are extremely rare. However, heterozygous carriers for this trait, with a predicted frequency of 1.4% (about 1 in 72), are far more common than most people imagine. There are roughly 278 times more carriers than albinos. Clearly, though, the vast majority of humans (98.6%) probably are homozygous dominant and do not have the albinism allele.


 * MFT**

This was the simplest explanation I could find of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is essential to all life on Earth since CO2 is required for photosynthesis.